Relentless Poachers: The Ecological Impact of Illegal Fishing on Indonesia's Ocean Survival

Introduction to Illegal Fishing

According to Mackay (2020), Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing is a major contributor to global overfishing, threatening food security, maritime livelihoods, and the sustainability of fisheries. Illegal fishing is an urgent issue in Indonesia (Ambanaga, 2023). IUU fishing has a wide geographical presence, with the expected benefits far outweighing the expected costs of fishing, thus necessitating a 24-fold increase in fines to balance costs and benefits. Illegal fishing is a widespread global phenomenon that affects already severely depleted wild fish stocks, threatens marine habitats, and contributes to ocean pollution through discarded fishing gear (Vince et al., 2020). Various measures have been implemented by countries to deter and prevent illegal fishing. Illegal fishing is one of the most prevalent problems in the world’s oceans. It causes material losses and the depletion of marine wealth (Velraj, 2020).

Indonesia’s Marine Biodiversity

Indonesia is one of the world’s centers of biodiversity. According to the IUCN, biodiversity is defined as the variety among living organisms from all sources, including land, oceans, and other aquatic ecosystems, as well as the ecological complexity within them (Asuhadi et al., 2021). These aquatic ecosystems include swamps, estuaries, tidal zones, lagoons, coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, fish, seabeds, deep seas, oceanic, and neritic zones. With Indonesia’s vast marine resources and highly diverse biodiversity, efforts to preserve and protect its sustainability are crucial (Wijayanti et al., 2021). This richness has drawn foreign parties seeking to exploit the potential of Indonesia’s marine resources through illegal fishing activities.

Indonesia is surrounded by water in two-thirds of its territory, which hosts abundant biodiversity, including various species of fish and coral reefs (Febriansyah et al., 2023). Fish and coral reefs are interdependent, as coral reefs provide habitat and food sources for fish. When coral reefs are damaged, the survival of fish populations is affected. According to data from FishBase, there are 1,193 fish species in Indonesia. Some endemic fish species, which are only found in certain areas of Indonesian waters, include members of the Cyprinidae family (small fish), Siluridae (catfish), Cypriniformes (fan-finned fish), and others. Several threats to fish biodiversity that may lead to extinction include overfishing, the introduction of invasive species, pollution, habitat loss or alteration, and climate change (Syafei, 2017).

Illegal Fishing Methods Used

According to Arianto (2017), there are several methods commonly used by fishermen in illegal fishing activities, including the use of explosives, toxic substances, and trawl nets (commonly referred to as “pukat harimau”). Explosive fishing is frequently practiced by traditional fishermen to catch reef fish. This method not only threatens non-target marine species but also endangers coral reef ecosystems. Explosions can kill marine organisms of all sizes and cause severe damage or death to coral reefs. Furthermore, debris from destroyed corals may accumulate in the waters, polluting the environment and disrupting aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, the fish caught using this method are often less fresh compared to those caught with environmentally friendly gear.

Another harmful method is the use of poisonous substances. This approach is equally damaging. The chemical most commonly used is potassium cyanide, typically employed to catch ornamental or live fish due to market demand. This method causes marine organisms to become stunned or die. Moreover, it damages coral reef ecosystems, as the chemicals bleach the colorful corals, eventually killing them.

The last method is the use of trawl nets, known as pukat harimau. This technique is environmentally unfriendly due to the large mesh body and small mesh size of the net, which causes even juvenile fish that have not yet spawned to be captured during fishing operations using vessels. This contributes to the risk of fish species extinction in the long term. Additionally, since this fishing gear operates along the seabed, it can cause extensive damage to coral reefs.

Ecological Impact

Illegal fishing practices remain a troubling issue to this day, with increasingly alarming ecological impacts. As an archipelagic nation with abundant marine resources, Indonesia is highly vulnerable to illegal fishing activities that threaten marine ecosystems and the sustainability of fish stocks. Throughout 2023, as many as 269 fishing vessels were recorded to have engaged in IUU fishing in Indonesian waters (Ambarwati, 2024). Ecological damage is often the result of illegal fishing practices in the form of overfishing, the use of prohibited gear, and explosives.

Overfishing can lead to a dramatic decline in certain fish populations and may even push species to the brink of no longer being able to recover naturally. This occurs because of the removal of fish that should not be caught—many marine species are interconnected through the food chain or depend on fish as their primary food source. Disruption in the food chain suppresses population growth and ultimately leads to economic losses due to reduced fish supply. More specifically, there are three types of overfishing and their respective impacts:

1. Growth overfishing, which occurs when fish are caught before they reach maturity, resulting in fewer fish that can grow and reproduce naturally.
2. Recruitment overfishing, which happens when the population of mature and spawning fish is depleted to the point where they can no longer replenish the stock, leading to further population declines.
3. Ecosystem overfishing, which takes place when excessive fishing leads to harmful changes in the ecosystem, disrupting its natural balance.

Furthermore, overfishing using prohibited fishing gear such as trawl nets, explosives, and cyanide also damages coral reefs, which in turn affects the overall marine ecosystem balance. In addition, remnants of fishing gear left behind in the ocean become marine debris, polluting the environment and endangering marine life. Marine species can become entangled in abandoned or lost fishing gear (Taurusman et al., 2020). However, despite the evident ecological consequences, alarmingly, 90% of fishing in Indonesian waters is still conducted in overfished areas (Ombudsman, 2023). In fact, over the past 25 years, the average stock of 232 fish species has declined by up to 83% (Latuconsina, 2023).

Economic Loss

Indonesia’s fisheries resources are a source of national prosperity, serving both to meet the population’s protein needs and as an export commodity to generate revenue for national development efforts (Djalal, 1979 as cited in Mahabror and Hidayat, 2018). The existence of these valuable fisheries resources has led to widespread illegal fishing activities within Indonesia’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), prompting the government to give more attention to the issue due to the significant economic losses it causes. One notable example of such illegal fishing is the large-scale capture of fish in Indonesian waters by foreign fishermen using destructive gear, such as pair trawls (Mahabror and Hidayat, 2018). These illegal activities disrupt sustainable fisheries management and cause economic losses for Indonesia. According to Solihin and Artahtiani (2012), the losses include:

1. Decreased catches leading to extinction.
2. Depletion of fishery resource stocks.
3. The loss of social and economic opportunities for legal fishermen.

Illegal fishing causes economic losses through decreased production in the following ways:

1. Loss of catch potential as foreign fishermen seize fish that should have been available to local fishers, resulting in a national decline in fish production.
2. Damage to marine ecosystems from the use of destructive fishing gear, which disrupts food chain balance and leads to long-term declines in fish populations.
3. Deterioration of seawater quality due to pollution from waste and chemicals released by illegal fishing vessels, affecting the health of marine life and reducing fish stock productivity.

In addition, illegal fishing negatively impacts the fisheries industry through:

1. Loss of state revenue, as illegal fishing vessels do not pay taxes or levies to the government;
2. Unfair competition due to price suppression in the market, forcing local fishermen to compete under unequal terms;
3. Threats to national sovereignty, potentially leading to conflict and maritime security instability;
4. Decline in the quality and market value of fishery products.

The economic loss caused by illegal fishing in Indonesia is estimated to reach up to IDR 30 trillion (approximately USD 2 billion) annually, including the loss of around 1 million tons of fish each year—resources that should have been caught by Indonesian fishermen but are instead stolen by foreign fishers (Solihin, 2010 as cited in Mariane, 2020).